Ronald G. Burns received his Ph.D. from the School of Criminology and Criminal Justice at Florida State
University. He is an assistant professor of criminal justice in the Department of Sociology and Criminal Justice
at Texas Christian University. His most recent publications appeared in Police Quarterly; Police Practice
and Research; Crime, Law and Social Change; Studies in Symbolic Interaction; Sociological
Spectrum; and Environment and Behavior. His primary research interests center on police violence and
media construction of crime. Recent research includes an examination of image shaping on behalf of the Food and
Drug Administration and an observation of the factors related to a suspect resisting arrest.
Crawford, Charles E. : Western Michigan University
Charles E. Crawford is an associate professor of sociology at Western Michigan University. He recently published
in the areas of gender and sentencing, prison sexual violence, suspect resistance at arrest, and racial profiling.
His current research involves the study of situational factors in police use of force and racial and pretextual
stops. He conducts evaluation research for the Kalamazoo Department of Public Safety.
Preface
Police officers must be constantly prepared to defend against, or use, force. As such, police officers need
special skills and knowledge to appropriately engage in this often controversial and dangerous aspect of their
job. Implications for officer misuse of violence include criminal and civil litigation, loss of public support,
injury, and death. For example, recent violent incidents in New York City resulted in additional strains between
minority groups and the police. In Fort Worth, Texas, an officer received a 90-day unpaid suspension after her
vehicle struck and killed the driver of another vehicle as she was responding to a nonemergency disturbance call.
Police officers' use of force attracts a great deal of attention, often becoming the main story on television news
shows and in the headlines of newspapers. Police violence both directly and indirectly affects a substantial portion
of our society. However, we must ask, "How much do we understand about the relationship between police officers
and violence?" We all have opinions regarding how much force is too much, and we all have ideas of how much
violence police officers encounter, but do any of us have what could be considered an accurate understanding of
all aspects of police violence?
Although a substantial body of research has addressed police violence, few scholarly texts have primarily focused
on it. For instance, most texts addressing the history of policing glance over the foundations of police violence,
while others provide limited coverage of the laws and training surrounding this aspect of the profession. Numerous
texts addressing police violence tend to focus on officers and deadly force. Although this is an important aspect
of police violence, such acts affect only a small number of officers, leaving a void in our understanding of all
forms of police violence.
The purpose of this text is to provide a comprehensive account of police violence. In covering aspects ranging
from the history of police violence to future directions, we hope readers will gain a more complete understanding
of the concept and all that it entails. In contrast to many publications addressing police violence, this text
covers acts of violence by and against officers. In selecting contributors who have a strong background in the
various areas of police violence (including both practitioners and academics), we believe we help fill a void in
the policing literature.
It is hoped that readers will use the text primarily to further understand police actions and reactions as they
relate to violence. The study of police violence is not new; however, no text comprehensively covers the issue.
Such coverage is of significance to a wide audience, including not only police officers, students, and academics,
but citizens, researchers, policymakers, and police administrators.
For the classroom, this text would be most useful in upper-level criminology and policing courses, as well as graduate
seminars dealing with critical issues in policing. The text would also be useful in professional seminars for police
trainers, as well as for instructors and students in the fields of public administration/affairs, law, violence,
deviance, and sociology. Additionally, organizations such as the ACLU, citizen action groups, and civilian review
boards may find use for the text. Finally, researchers and policy-makers outside the United States may appreciate
the text for its extensive coverage of police violence.
Development of this text initially began following our work on two research articles on police use of force and
a follow-up piece on suspect use of force. Through a series of conversations with colleagues such as John Hepburn,
Mark Dantzker, and John Fuller, and presentations on panels at the American Society of Criminology and the Academy
of Criminal Justice Sciences, we began thinking about expanding this theme and putting together a reader that focuses
specifically on police violence, pulling authors from a variety of backgrounds, all united by the goal of developing
a comprehensive and better understanding of the area. As we continued our research, we realized that although there
were numerous articles on police violence, few books specifically address the issue at length, leaving a void for
practitioners, researchers, and students.
We decided to seek out contributors we believed had a strong understanding of situational and contextual interpretations
of justice actions, including police violence. In choosing both practitioners and academicians, we believe this
text will fill a gap in the policing literature. The collection of 11 original chapters covering a wide variety
of areas of police violence should provide readers with "one-stop shopping" for coverage of the topic.
In Chapter 1 ("The Political Economy of Police Violence"), Paul B. Stretesky documents the origins of
police violence from a historical, materialistic, and dialectical perspective. He examines the political economy
of police violence from a historical perspective by examining how various modes of production are related to violence
by and against the police. Focusing on the dynamics of police violence over time in relation to the transformation
from feudalism to capitalism in its various forms and investigating police violence from a materialistic perspective
by examining productive forces and the relations of productions, Stretesky provides a thorough and insightful account
of police violence.
Through examining the research surrounding violent acts by and against police officers in Chapter 2 ("Violence
by and Against the Police"), Jason T. Carmichael and David Jacobs help set the foundation for a comprehensive
account of police violence. Their chapter examines areas such as the coercive techniques officers use to deal with
resistance and the legal provisions that regulate police use of force. The authors review the social science research
on the factors that contribute to the use of force by and against officers and close by proposing an approach to
reducing unwarranted violence by the police.
In exploring the reasons why police officers can feel justified in using excessive force, Robert P McNamara describes
how officers are socialized and includes an overview of the subculture of policing in Chapter 3 ("From Report
Takers to Report Makers: Understanding the Police and Violence"). McNamara addresses the "nature versus
nurture" debate in policing and examines police violence through frustration-aggression, social learning,
and the subculture of violence theories.
Taking Carmichael and Jacobs's work in Chapter 2 a bit further, Chapter 4 ("Standard Determinants of Police
Violence") provides an account of the situational factors affecting an officer's likelihood to use or be the
victim of violence. In this chapter, we, Ronald Burns and Charles Crawford, present research specifically devoted
to situational factors affecting police violence and provide several real-life accounts of a city being forced
to re-examine police practices as a result of incidents in which situational factors played influential roles.
The development of measurements of police violence (particularly as they relate to measurement of situational factors)
is also discussed.
The next four chapters are written by authors with current field experience as police officers. In Chapter 5 ("Police
Use of Deadly Force: Where We Should Be Looking"), Steven E. Reifert presents and questions the literature
regarding deadly force. He examines, among other things, measurements of deadly force, related training issues,
and why some officers use deadly force while others refrain from doing so. Reifert's occupational insight provides
a refreshing deviation from traditional accounts of more academically based accounts of police use of deadly force.
Kenneth W. Flynn also draws on his experience in policing in his discussion of "Training and Police Violence"
in Chapter 6. Many suggest that increased professionalization of policing begins with improved training, and that
many violent encounters between citizens and suspects can be avoided through appropriate police responses. Captain
Flynn highlights these arguments in his account of how police violence can be reduced through proper training.
Among the training-related issues addressed are the importance of education, methods for training, training standards,
and civil liability.
Television is replete with shows involving criminals trying to outrun police officers. In "Police Pursuits:
Just One Form of Violence" (Chapter 7), Matt Welch demonstrates the importance of officer pursuits, and how
such acts can be recognized as violence. Welch skillfully combines existing research and his experience in policing
in his discussion of the types of police pursuits, legal issues and policies surrounding pursuits, frequency and
dangerousness of such events, and training required to prepare officers for pursuits.
While we recognize the benefits of community policing in relation to public perception of policing, we are uncertain
what impact community policing will have in many other areas of policing. As such, understanding police violence
in the community era of policing is important as an increasing number of police departments adopt the community
policing philosophy. In Chapter 8 ("Community Policing and Police Violence"), Rhonda K. DeLong addresses
various aspects of community policing and how related changes will impact police violence. Among other issues,
DeLong stresses the importance of effective selection, recruitment, and training of officers as many departments
alter their approach to policing.
A text on police violence would be incomplete without a look at international rates of violent police-citizen encounters
and explanations of the differences between countries. It is imperative that we address the impact on policing
of our shift toward a global society. Drawing on decades of experience personally researching international policing,
Richard H. Ward highlights the differences and similarities in police violence as it exists in various countries.
In Chapter 9 ("The International Dimensions of Violence and the Police"), Ward suggests, among other
things, that the most significant determinate of police violence is the country's form of government.
In Chapter 10 ("Future Directions of Police Violence: What to Expect"), Gene Stephens provides a look
to the future of police violence. From the perspective of his 30 years as a futurist specializing in criminal justice
and policing in particular, Stephens reviews the projections of others and describes what he believes is the future
of police violence. In general, he argues that we can expect to see "more of the same" in the next few
years, followed by a short period of "new" violence, and finally a "real" decrease in violence
by and against police. Stephens's insightful chapter assists readers in understanding what shifts in police violence
we face, and why we should expect change.
M.L. Dantzker uses Chapter 11 ("Policing and Violence in Review: Perspectives from the Practitioner Turned
Academic/Practitioner") to share his understanding and interpretation of police violence based on his experience
as a practitioner and an academic. Dantzker skillfully provides a sense of closure (often lacking, yet required
in edited texts) by addressing the significance of police violence in everyday life, while summarizing and elaborating
on the preceding chapters.
Ronald Burns
Charles Crawford
Summary
This comprehensive, accurate, and timely account of police violence provides readers with a complete understanding
of the concept and all that it entails�covering its history to future directions, and ten different areas of police
violence. Each chapter in the reader addresses police violence as it is used by and against officers,
and all highly competent contributing authors (including both practitioners and academics) have a strong background
in the various areas. Chapter topics examine the research surrounding violent acts, the reasons officers feel justified
in using excessive force, an account of situational factors affecting an officer's likelihood to use or be the
victim of violence, measurements of deadly force, training issues, the importance of officer pursuits, violence
and the community policing philosophy, and international rates of violent police-citizen encounters and the differences
between countries. For use in the police academy�and by the ACLU, citizen action groups, and civilian review boards.
Table of Contents
1. Police Violence Through the Ages: How Did We Get Here?, Paul Stretesky.
2. Police Violence By and Against Officers: A Look at the Research, David Carmichael and David Jacobs.
3. Violence and Police Subculture, Robert McNamara.
4. Situational Policing: Who Is Responsible for Police-Citizen Violence?, Ronald Burns and Charles Crawford.
5. Deadly Force By and Against Police Officers, Steven Reifert.
6. Training and Police Violence, Kenneth Flynn.
7. Police Pursuits: Our Most Recent Form of Police Violence?, Matt Welch.
8. Violence and Community Policing: Assessing the Relationship, Rhonda DeLong.
9. Comparative Police Violence: Where Does America Fit In?, Richard Ward.
10. Future Directions of Police Violence: What to Expect, Gene Stephens.
11. Policing and Violence in Review: Perspectives from the Practitioner Turned Academic/Practitioner, M.L.
Dantzker.
